Authors | Ben Fowler |
Compilation date | 07 July 2020 |
Customer | Stansted Airport Ltd |
Approved by | Louisa Kramer |
Copyright | Ricardo Energy & Environment |
EULA | http://ee.ricardo.com/cms/eula/ |
Contract reference | ED62702 | Report reference | ED62702 - Issue 1 |
This report provides details of air quality monitoring conducted around Stansted Airport during 2019. The work, carried out by Ricardo Energy and Environment on behalf of Stansted Airport Ltd, is a continuation of monitoring undertaken at Stansted Airport since 2004. The aims of the programme are to monitor air pollution around the airport, to assess compliance with relevant air quality objectives, and to investigate changes in air pollutant concentrations over time.
Automatic continuous monitoring was carried out at two locations, referred to as Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. Stansted 3 was located to the south-east of the airport at High House, and Stansted 4 was located to the north of the runway. Automatic monitoring was also carried out at a new location named Stansted 5 beginning on 6th December 2019. Stansted 5 was located in the National Trust office car park in the north-east corner of Hatfield Forest. For the purpose of this report data for Stansted 5 has not been included due to the lack of data available for 2019, annual analysis will subsequently begin for this site in 2020. All sites monitored oxides of nitrogen (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide), PM10 particulate matter and PM2.5 particulate matter.
In addition to automatic monitoring, indicative monitoring of nitrogen dioxide was carried out using diffusion tubes. These were co-located with the continuous automatic monitor at Stansted 3 and also used at four other sites around Stansted, to the north, south, east and west of the airport. From August 2017, indicative monitoring of nitrogen dioxide was carried out using diffusion tubes at nine locations around Hatfield Forest.
The minimum applicable data capture target of 85% (recommended in the European Commission Air Quality Directive1 and Defra Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16)2 was achieved for all pollutants in 2019 at Stansted 3 (NOx, PM10 and PM2.5) and Stansted 4 (NOx, PM10 and PM2.5).
The UK AQS hourly mean objective for NO2 is 200 μg m-3, with no more than 18 exceedances allowed each year. Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 both met this objective, with no hourly means recorded above the objective at Stansted 3 and eleven hourly means recorded above the objective at Stansted 4. The annual mean AQS objective for NO2 is 40 μg m-3. This was met at Stansted 3, Stansted 4, and at all five of the Stansted diffusion tube monitoring sites. All data from Hatfield Forest diffusion tube monitoring sites also met this objective.
PM10 may exceed the 24-hour mean limit of 50 μg m-3 no more than 35 times per year to meet the AQS objective. The annual mean AQS for PM10 is 40 μg m-3. These objectives were met at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, with five and three occasions where the 24-hour mean exceeded 40 μg m-3 respectively.
The annual mean objective for PM2.5 is 25 μg m-3. At Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, the annual mean was 10 μg m-3 and 9 μg m-3 respectively. Therefore these sites met the AQS objective for PM2.5 annual means.
Wind speed and direction data accessed via the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) were used to produce bivariate plots showing hourly mean pollutant concentrations against the corresponding weather conditions. The bivariate plot for NO2 at Stansted 3 show elevated concentrations when wind speeds are low. There also appears to be a source originating from the north west at higher wind speeds, indicating a possible result of activities around the airport terminal buildings. The bivariate plots for PM10 at Stansted 3 showed a source to the east of the site, possibly arising from agricultural activities, however a source close to the site is also shown when wind speeds are low, indicating a potential source from local vehicle emissions. PM10 sources at Stansted 4 appear under calmer conditions although there are still elevated concentrations that appear under moderate to higher wind speeds to the east of the site. Bivariate plots for PM2.5 at both sites show higher concentrations occur under calmer conditions but also show higher concentrations occur at moderate to high wind speeds to the east of the site.
The bivariate plot for NO2 at Stansted 4 generally show elevated concentrations when wind speeds are calm to moderate and prevailing from the south-west and south-east, indicating sources being attributed to airport activity and the A120 road. The bivariate plots for PM10 and PM2.5 at Stansted 4 showed a source to the east of the site, possibly arising from agricultural activities, however a source close to the site is also shown when wind speeds are low, indicating a potential local emissions source from vehicles.
At Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, particularly high concentrations of PM10 were recorded on 8th April, 17th April and 25th August. Air masses coming from eastern Europe and increased local emissions are the expected origins of these high concentration episodes.
Average NO2 concentrations are broadly similar to those from comparable urban background monitoring sites and have remained lower than those for London Heathrow Airport. PM10 levels at Stansted 3 have increased by 1 μg m-3 and at Stansted 4 remained similar to 2018.
Stansted Airport is London’s third busiest international airport, handling approximately 28.4 million passengers a year. The airport is situated approximately 40 miles north of London, in North West Essex. It is situated outside the general urbanised area of Greater London, and its surroundings are rural.
Stansted Airport Ltd is required, under the terms of its Section 106 Planning Agreement with the Local Authority (Uttlesford District Council), to carry out monitoring of oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter at an agreed location. Prior to 2006, monitoring was required for three months per year; from 2006 onwards, continuous monitoring throughout the year has been required. Ricardo Energy & Environment was contracted by Stansted Airport Ltd to carry out the required programme of air pollution measurements during 2019, the fourteenth full year of continuous monitoring.
Provisional data are reported to Stansted Airport Ltd monthly throughout the year. This annual report presents and summarises the fully validated and quality controlled dataset for the entire calendar year. Data in the annual report have been processed according to the rigorous quality assurance and quality control procedures used by Ricardo Energy & Environment. These ensure the data are reliable, accurate and traceable to UK national measurement standards.
This report covers the period 1st January to 31st December 2019.
The aim of this monitoring programme is to monitor concentrations of three important air pollutants around the airport. The results of the monitoring are used to assess whether applicable air quality objectives have been met, and how pollutant concentrations in the area have changed over time. The pollutants monitored were as follows:
The automatic monitoring was supplemented by indicative monitoring of NO2 using diffusion tubes at five locations around Stansted Airport, and an additional nine locations in Hatfield Forest.
Monitoring data collected at Stansted are compared in this report with:
In addition, periods of relatively high pollutant concentrations are examined in more detail.
This report compares the results of the monitoring survey with air quality limit values and objectives applicable in the UK. These are summarised below.
Throughout Europe, ambient air quality is regulated by the EC Directive on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe (EU/2015/1480) 3. This Directive (referred to as the Air Quality Directive) consolidated three previously existing Directives, which set limit values for a range of air pollutants with known health impacts including NO2, PM10, CO and benzene.
All Member States of the European Union are required to transpose the requirements of the Directive into their national law. The original Directives were transposed into UK law via the Environment Act 1995 and subsequent Statutory Instruments.
The Environment Act also placed a requirement on the Secretary of State for the Environment to produce a national Air Quality Strategy containing standards, objectives and measures for improving ambient air quality. The original Air Quality Strategy was published in 1997, and contained air quality objectives based on the recommendations of the Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards (EPAQS) regarding the levels of air pollutants at which there would be little risk to human health.
The Air Quality Strategy has since undergone a number of revisions. These have reflected improvements in the understanding of air pollutants and their health effects. They have also incorporated new European limit values, both for pollutants already covered by the Strategy and for newly introduced pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and PM2.5 particulate matter. The latest version of the strategy was published by Defra in 2007 4.
All Air Quality Strategy (AQS) objectives must be at least as stringent as the EC limit values. The current UK air quality objectives for the pollutants monitored at Stansted Airport are presented in Table 1. In some cases, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland have adopted different objectives: Table 1 shows the AQS objectives that apply in England.
Combustion processes emit a mixture of oxides of nitrogen - NO and NO2 - collectively termed NOx.
NO is described as a primary pollutant (meaning it is directly emitted from source). NO is not known to have any harmful effects on human health at ambient concentrations. However, it undergoes oxidation in the atmosphere to form the secondary pollutant NO2.
NO2 has a primary (directly emitted) component and a secondary component, formed by oxidation of NO. NO2 is a respiratory irritant and is toxic at high concentrations. It is also involved in the formation of photochemical smog and acid rain and may cause damage to crops and vegetation. Of the NOx emissions (including NO2) considered to be airport-related, over 50 % arise from aircraft during take-off and landing, with around two-thirds of all emissions occurring at some distance from airport ground-level. The Air Quality Expert Group (AQEG)5 has stated that: “Around a third of all NOx emissions from the aircraft (including ground-level emissions from auxiliary power units, engine testing etc., as well as take-off and landing) occur below 100 m in height. The remaining two-thirds occur between 100 m and 1000 m and contribute little to ground-level concentrations. Receptor modelling studies . show the impact of airport activities on ground-level NO2 concentrations. Studies have shown that although emissions associated with road traffic are smaller than those associated with aircraft, their impact on population exposure at locations around the airport are larger”.
Previous rounds of review and assessment within the LAQM process have not highlighted any cases where airports appear to have caused exceedances of air quality objectives for particulate matter measured as PM10. Therefore, in the context of LAQM, the key pollutant of concern from airports is NO2. Local authorities whose areas contain airports with over 10 million passengers per annum must take these into account in their annual review and assessment of air quality6.
Airborne particulate matter varies widely in its physical and chemical composition, source and particle size. The term PM10 is used to describe particles with an effective size less than 10 μm. These are of greatest concern with regard to human health, as they are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs. They can cause inflammation and a worsening of the condition of people with heart and lung diseases. In addition, they may carry surface absorbed carcinogenic compounds into the lungs. Larger particles, meanwhile, are not readily inhaled, and are removed relatively efficiently from the air by sedimentation.
The main sources of airborne particulate matter in the UK are combustion (industrial, commercial and residential fuel use). The next most significant source is road vehicle emissions. Based on 2018 calendar year emissions data from the 2020 submission of National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) data to the EU, civil aircraft taking off and landing (up to a height of 1000m) was estimated to contribute <0.1% to the total reported UK emissions of PM10 and PM2.5, although PM2.5 has a contribution 58% more than PM10.7.
Automatic monitoring was carried out at two sites for the whole of 2019. Automatic monitoring was also carried out at a new location named Stansted 5 beginning on 6th December 2019. The other two locations are referred to as Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 (the numbering of the sites continues the sequence used for previous short-term sites in earlier monitoring studies). The location descriptions of both sites fall into the category “other” as defined by the Defra Technical Guidance on air quality monitoring LAQM.TG(16)8, (i.e. “any special source-oriented or location category covering monitoring undertaken in relation to specific emission sources such as power stations, car-parks, airports or tunnels”).
These automatic sites were supplemented by five sites at which diffusion tubes were used to monitor NO2 on a monthly basis. These were located at the Stansted 3 automatic site, and four sites to the north, east, south and west of the airport. Further to this, an additional nine diffusion tube sites were located around Hatfield Forest.
Table 2 describes the monitoring locations. Figure 1 shows a map of the locations of all monitoring sites used in this study. Automatic monitoring sites are shown by purple dots, diffusive samplers by yellow dots.
The location of the automatic monitoring site at High House (Stansted 3) was agreed with Stansted Airport, Uttlesford District Council and Ricardo Energy & Environment. It is located just outside the eastern perimeter of the airport. It is considered to be close enough to the airport to detect effects relating to airport emissions. It is also close to vulnerable receptors, being located in a nursery school car park. The A120 main road runs approximately 1.5 km to the south of the site. The monitoring apparatus is housed in a purpose-built enclosure. Figure 2 shows a photograph of the Stansted 3 site.
Stansted 4 is located at the north-eastern end of the main runway, within the airport perimeter. It is intended to monitor any effects on air quality related to airport emissions. The location of Stansted 4 is included in Figure 1, and a photograph is provided in Figure 3.
Stansted 5 is located in the National Trust office car park in the north-east corner of Hatfield Forest. It is intended to monitor any effects of air quality in the Hatfield Forest area related to airport emissions. For the purpose of this report data for Stansted 5 has not been included due to the lack of data available for the 2019 calendar year, annual analysis will subsequently begin for Stansted 5 in 2020.
The following techniques were used for the automatic monitoring of NOx (i.e. NO and NO2) and PM:
Further information on these techniques is provided in Appendix 3 of this report. These analysers provide a continuous output, proportional to the pollutant concentration. This output is recorded and stored every 10 seconds, and averaged to 15-minute mean values by internal data loggers. The analysers are connected to a web logger which sends data every hour to a remote server, Ricardo Energy and Environment download data from the server hourly. The data are converted to concentration units at Ricardo Energy & Environment then averaged to hourly mean concentrations.
Diffusion tubes were used for additional indicative monitoring of NO2. These are “passive” samplers which work by absorbing the pollutants direct from the surrounding air and need no power supply.
Diffusion tubes for NO2 consist of a small plastic tube, approximately 7 cm long. During sampling, one end is open and the other closed. The closed end contains an absorbent for the gaseous species to be monitored, in this case NO2. The tube is mounted vertically with the open end at the bottom. Ambient NO2 diffuses up the tube during exposure, and is absorbed as nitrite. The average ambient pollutant concentration for the exposure period is calculated from the amount of pollutant absorbed.
Diffusion tubes were prepared by a commercial laboratory (Gradko International Ltd). The tubes were supplied in a sealed condition prior to exposure. They were exposed at the sites for a set period of time. After exposure, the tubes were again sealed and returned to the laboratory for analysis. The exposure periods used were approximately equivalent to calendar months.
In line with current operational procedures within the Defra Automatic Urban and Rural Network (AURN) 9, full intercalibration audits of the Stansted air quality monitoring sites took place at six-monthly intervals. Full details of these UKAS-accredited calibrations, together with data validation and ratification procedures, are given in Appendix 1 of this report. In addition to instrument and calibration standard checking, the air intake sampling systems were cleaned and all other aspects of site infrastructure were checked.
Following the instrument and calibration gas checking, and the subsequent scaling and ratification of the data, the overall accuracy and precision figures for the pollutants monitored at Stansted are summarised in Table 3.
When using diffusion tubes for indicative NO2 monitoring, the LAQM Technical Guidance LAQM.TG(16)10 states that correction should be made for any systematic bias (i.e. over-read or under-read compared to the automatic chemiluminescent technique, which is the reference method for NO2). Throughout this study, diffusion tubes have been exposed alongside the automatic NOx analyser at Stansted 3. These co-located measurements were used for bias adjustment of the annual mean diffusion tube data from the other sites.
The diffusion tube methodologies used for this monitoring programme provide data that are accurate to ±25 % for NO2. The limits of detection vary from month to month, but typically equate to between 0.01 μg m-3 and 0.031 μg m-3 for NO2. Diffusion tube results that are below 10 times the limit of detection have a higher level of uncertainty associated with them. All were above this threshold.
Overall data capture statistics along with summary statistics for Stansted 3 and 4 are given in Table 5 to Table 7. These represent the percentage of valid data for the whole reporting period. A data capture target of 90% is recommended in the Defra Technical Guidance LAQM.TG(16) 11. This target was achieved for all pollutants at both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4.
Significant data gaps for the stations are shown in Table 4.
Below are time series plots of hourly and daily concentrations of NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 during 2019.
At Stansted 3, the highest hourly average concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 were both recorded in early April measuring 222 μg m-3 and 197 μg m-3 respectively. The highest NO2 hourly mean for the year of 2019 was measured in late August, registering 122 μg m-3.
At Stansted 4, the highest concentrations of NO2 occurred during the winter months, when emissions tend to be higher, due to periods of cold, and still weather, which reduce pollutant dispersion. The highest concentration of hourly average NO2 was recorded in early December, measuring 96 μg m-3.
The highest hourly average concentration of PM10 at Stansted 4 during 2019 was recorded during late March measuring 122 μg m-3.
Table 8 shows the NO2 diffusion tube results for 2019. Tubes were exposed in triplicate at all sites. The results shown are the means of those triplicate measurements. The full dataset is shown below. The analyst provided diffusion tube data to two decimal places. These have been rounded to one decimal place in the table below, but are quoted as integer values in this report, in accordance with the reported uncertainty of the method.
Nine results were rejected as they were suspected to be spurious, some due to evironmental contamination and others were obvious outliers. Details of these results are shown in Table 10. All results considered to be “outliers”; results much lower than those of the other two co-exposed tubes, subsequently resulting in rejection.
Across the five Stansted sites, annual mean NO2 concentrations measured with diffusion tubes ranged from 17 to 29 μg m-3. At Stansted 3, where diffusion tube results could be compared directly with data from automatic monitoring, the (rounded) annual mean concentration was 20 μg m-3. This compared with the annual mean of 20 μg m-3 obtained using the reference technique (the chemiluminescence analyser).
Diffusion tubes are affected by several artefacts, which can cause them to under-read or over-read with respect to the reference technique. It has therefore become common practice to calculate and apply a “bias adjustment factor” to annual mean NO2 concentrations measured by diffusion tubes, using co-located diffusion tube and automatic analyser measurements. This bias adjustment factor is calculated as the ratio of the automatic analyser result to the diffusion tube result. This factor can then be used to correct the annual means measured at the other monitoring locations. The bias adjustment factor was calculated using unrounded values from all months. On this basis, the bias adjustment factor was calculated to be 0.97.
The annual mean values from the other four Stansted diffusion tube sites as well as the nine Hatfield Forest sites were all corrected using the same bias adjustment factor.
Across the nine Hatfield Forest sites, annual mean NO2 concentrations measured with diffusion tubes ranged from 12 to 16 μg m-3.
Please note:
Details of the UK air quality standards and objectives specified by Defra are provided in Table 1.
The AQS objective for hourly mean NO2 concentration is 200 μg m-3 which may be exceeded up to 18 times per calendar year. At both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 there were no recorded hourly mean NO2 concentrations in excess of the hourly mean AQS objective of 200 μg m-3, both sites therefore met the AQS objective for this pollutant.
The annual mean NO2 concentrations measured at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 during 2019 were 20 μg m-3 and 16 μg m-3 respectively. Both automatic sites were therefore within the annual mean AQS objective for NO2 of 40 μg m-3 for protection of human health and the objective of 30 μg m-3 for protection of vegetation and ecosystems.
The bias-adjusted annual mean NO2 concentrations measured at all fourteen diffusion tube sites were all well within the AQS objective of 40 μg m-3.
PM10 was measured at both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. At Stansted 3 the number of days when the 24-hour mean was in excess of 50 μg m-3 was five. This is well within the maximum permitted number of exceedances (35), therefore these sites met the AQS objective for 24 hour mean PM10. At Stansted 4 the number of days when the 24-hour mean was in excess of 50 μg m-3 was three. This is well within the maximum permitted number of exceedances (35), therefore these sites met the AQS objective for 24 hour mean PM10.
PM2.5 was measured at both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. At Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, the annual mean was 9.7 μg m-3 and 8.9 μg m-3 respectively. These are both well within the annual mean objective of 25 μg m-3, therefore these sites met the AQS objective for annual means for PM2.5.
As well as the AQS Objectives, a Daily Air Quality Index (DAQI) is used in the UK to communicate information about current and forecast air quality to the public. The Index is based on a scale of 1-10, divided into four bands (Low, Moderate, High and Very High): this provides a simple indication of pollution levels, similar to the pollen index. Low air pollution is between 1 and 3, Moderate is between 4 and 6, High is between 7 and 9, and Very High is 10 on the scale. This is intended to allow sensitive people to take any necessary action.
The concentration ranges associated with each band within the index are presented in Appendix 2.
PM10 concentrations at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 went into the Moderate band on five and three occasions respecitvely at each site, throughout 2019.
NO2 concentrations at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 remained within the Low band throughout 2019.
The historic Air Quality Index data presented at the Department of Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (Defra) UK-AIR website12 shows air quality index bands that go from 4 (Moderate) to 10 (Very High) for most of the UK regions around the 27th February and 22nd April. These pollution episodes are consistent with the period of elevated PM and NOx concentrations measured at the monitoring stations at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, and explanations for these pollution events follow below:
Some Ozone episodes were recorded over the summer period:
The average daily concentration for each pollutant across all the sites is calculated, with the top 10 most polluted days identified and linked to its back trajectory data in the plot below. Figure 17 illustrates the origins of the pollution episode in late February as described above, demonstrating wind sources from central and eastern Europe.
Figure 23, Figure 24 and Figure 25 shows the average NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations during 2019 at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 for each hour on a given day (top), any hour (bottom left), each month (bottom centre) and any day (Bottom right).
Figure 23 shows different temporal averages of NO2 recorded at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. This graph shows elevated concentration peaks for both sites in winter months, mainly January and February. This pattern would be expected during periods of cold weather and relatively low wind speeds that reduce pollutant dispersion.
Figure 24 shows different temporal averages of PM2.5 recorded at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. This graph shows increases in February and April at both sites, a pattern that would be expected during periods of colder weather and relatively low wind speeds. These elevated periods seen at both sites indicate a more regional coverage of elevated data and possible transboundary sources, a trend that would be expected given the persistence of PM2.5 molecules in the atmosphere. Therefore these elevated periods were largely down to pollution episodes registered across the UK.
Figure 25 shows different temporal averages of PM10 recorded at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. It shows a similar trend to that described above for PM2.5, most noticeably the increase in concentrations in April. There is however a more pronounced peak in April at both sites when compared to PM2.5.
Analysis of each pollutant across weekly variation show similar diurnal trends occur across each week day. Early morning and late afternoon NO2 peaks coincide with rush hour traffic and in general are highest during midweek (Tuesday and Wednesday). Weekend concentrations tend to peak during late evenings at Stansted 3, whereas at Stansted 4 weekend diurnal trends follow a pattern more associated with week day trends that include a pronounced morning and evening peak.
PM10 at Stansted 3 show a similar (yet less pronounced) trend to that of NO2 where concentrations increase steadily during week days and decrease into the weekend until diurnal concentrations are lowest on Sundays. Stansted 4 exhibits a trend where concentrations begin high and slowly derease until early afternoon, followed by an increase into the evening. Concentrations of PM2.5 remain similar throughout the week, this pattern is not observed for PM10.
Bottom left graphs in Figure 23, Figure 24 and Figure 25 show diurnal variation in pollutant concentrations, as measured at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4.
Both sites showed typical urban area daily patterns for NO2. Pronounced peaks can be seen for these pollutants during the mornings, corresponding to rush hour traffic at around 06:00. Concentrations tend to decrease during the middle of the day, with a broader evening rush-hour peak in NO2 building up from early afternoon. At both sites the afternoon peak in NO2 was of a higher order of magnitude compared to the morning peak and then stayed at elevated levels for much of the night. This is to be expected as concentrations of oxidising agents in the atmosphere (e.g. ozone) tend to increase in the afternoon, leading to enhanced oxidation of NO to NO2.
PM2.5 concentrations at both sites, shown in Figure 24 exhibit similar diurnal trends. Concentrations decrease throughout the morning until around 13:00, and then proceed to increase back to a similar concentration of that in the morning. This can be attributed to two factors, the first being emissions of primary particulate matter. The second relates to the emissions of sulphur dioxide and NOx that can react with other chemicals in the atmosphere to form secondary sulphate and nitrate particles, resulting in elevated levels of PM10 and PM2.5.
Average PM10 concentrations, show in Figure 25 exhibited different diurnal trends for Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. At Stansted 3 concentrations increase during the morning rush hour period and stay at these elevated levels throughout the day with peaks that coincide with increased local emissions from the car park next to the site. When considered that PM10 has a higher settling velocity than PM2.5, it helps to explain the temporal variation in concentrations. Whereas at Stansted 4 concentrations decrease until early afternoon followed by a quicker increase until it peaks at around 20:00.
In order to investigate the possible sources of air pollution that were monitored at Stansted airport, meteorological data were used to add a directional component to the air pollutant concentrations. Wind speed and direction data was gathered using data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorological database. The QA/QC procedures for checking of these data are not known.
Figure 26 shows the wind speed and direction data. The lengths of the “spokes” against the concentric circles indicate the percentage of time during the year that the wind was measured from each direction. The prevailing wind direction was 200° to 240°, which shows that the prevailing wind direction was clearly from the south west. Each “spoke” is divided into coloured sections representing wind speed intervals of 2 m s-1 as shown by the scale bar in the plot, followed by a final interval of 8.9 m s-1. The mean wind speed was 4.11 m s-1. The maximum hourly measured wind speed was 14.9 m s-1. Some of the highest wind speeds occurred during March 2019.
Figure 27 to Figure 31 show intereactive versions of calendar plots. The date is coloured by the NO2, PM2.5 and PM10 concentration (μg m-3) for that day. The actual value can also be seen by hovering the mouse on the cell, along with the wind speed.
Figure 33, Figure 34 and Figure 35 show bivariate plots, ‘’pollution roses’’ of hourly mean pollutant concentrations against the corresponding wind speed and wind direction. These plots should be interpreted as follows:
The wind direction is indicated as in the wind rose above (north, south, east and west are indicated).
The wind speed is indicated by the distance from the centre of the plot: the concentric circles indicate wind speeds in 5 ms-1 intervals.
The pollutant concentration is indicated by the colour (as indicated by the scale).
These plots therefore show how pollutant concentration varies with wind direction and wind speed.
Figure 33 show the main source of NO2 at Stansted 3 to appear close to the monitoring site, with the highest concentrations occurring at low wind speeds. At higher wind speeds, one main source seems to emerge, from north west of the monitoring location, these occurring at wind speeds between 5-10 m s-1. These might be the result of activities around the airport terminal buildings. Part of this NO2 may be created by the reaction between local emissions of NO with ozone, travelling at increased wind speeds to create a faster reaction.
At Stansted 4 there is also evidence of sources close to the monitoring site. However, at moderate and higher wind speeds there is a strong signature from the south east and south west - the direction of the main airport terminal, runway and surrounding access roads.
Figure 34 illustrates a differing trend when compared to 2018 in that PM2.5 concentrations at both sites appear to be higher under light to moderate wind speeds to the south east of the monitoring site rather than at higher wind speeds as was the case in 2018. At both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4, there is seen to be a moderate level of PM2.5 under calmer conditions which can most likely be attributed to local emissions from vehicles in close proximity to the site as well as periods of elevated concentrations where particles have transported over long distances. PM2.5 sources are strongly associated with road vehicles, with natural sources only contributing only a small amount to the total concentration.
PM10 concentrations exhibit a differing trend in relation to 2018. At Stansted 4 higher PM10 concentrations were associated with higher wind speeds in 2018 but are associated with low to moderate wind speeds in 2019. At both sites there also appears to be a stronger signature to the south east rather than the north east as was the case in 2018. At Stansted 3 in both 2018 and 2019, PM10 highest concentrations seem to be associated to higher wind speeds in an easterly direction, however in 2019 there is a stronger influence from wind directions originating from the south east
High PM10 concentrations at Stansted 3 occurred under all conditions in 2019, but there is a visible source under unsettled conditions (wind speeds above 5 m s-1) further from the monitoring stations to the east possibly due to agricultural activity. High PM10 concentrations were found close to both monitoring sites under low to moderate wind speeds (0-5 ms-1) for wind directions between 0-180°, and at higher wind speeds (10-15 ms-1) to the south-west. This could be related to a source from the M11 motorway, airport and surrounding roads.
The UK-wide pollution/trans-boundary episodes previously mentioned on this report and some agricultural activity related to harvesting may help explain high PM10 concentrations at higher wind speeds originating from several wind directions. This is further supported by the majority of daily exceedances at Stansted 3 in PM10 were in April 2019, which coincided with the previously mentioned UK-wide pollution event in this month (22nd April 2019).
Figure 36 shows the monthly total aircraft movements and monthly passenger numbers at Stansted, from Jan 2005 onwards against monthly mean concentrations of NO2 at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. These are plotted on a normalised scale to illustrate the trends between these three variables.
As highlighted in previous reports in this series, there is a clear seasonal pattern in air traffic movements at Stansted: numbers are higher in the summer and lower in the winter. By contrast, concentrations of NO2 tend to show the opposite pattern, being highest in January and November.
It is important to note that emissions from the airport are an important contributor to local concentrations of NO2. However, this simplistic analysis illustrates how seasonal variation in ambient pollutant concentrations is influenced more by general factors (e.g. meteorological conditions).
Figure 37 provides a comparison between annual mean pollutant NO2 levels at the Stansted sites and corresponding measurements made at six other monitoring stations (2001 to 2019). Five of these are other AURN monitoring sites in the south and east of England and the sixth is in the vicinity of a major airport. These sites are listed below.
In recent years, annual mean concentrations of NO2 at the Stansted sites have resembled urban background concentrations measured at similar sites. For example, the concentrations seen at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 are comparable with those at Southend on-Sea and Thurrock, although they are slightly higher than those reported from Canterbury.
Both Stansted sites have consistently reported lower concentrations than those recorded at London Harlington, Heathrow LHR2, and Cambridge Roadside. The overall trend in annual mean NO2 concentrations at Stansted 3 shows there to be a general decrease between 2004 and 2019, illustrating a reduction of 33% in the 15 year period. Stansted 4 exhibits a similar decreasing trend between the sites commissioning year of 2006 and 2019, decreasing by 24% within this period. In 2019 the annual mean concentration at Stansted 3 remained level in comparison to 2018 and at Stansted 4 decreased by 1 μg m-3 in relation to 2018.
Cambridge Roadside, located at the kerb of a busy road in the nearby city of Cambridge, is included as an example of a site showing constant high annual mean NO2 concentrations. The site (like many other urban roadside sites in the UK) has consistently recorded annual mean NO2 concentrations in excess of 26 μg m-3, substantially higher than those observed at either of the Stansted sites.
The data collected in 2019 shows that concentrations generally remained similar to those concentrations in 2018.
Figure 38 shows annual mean PM10 concentrations at Stansted 3, Stansted 4 and other local sites. Stansted 3 data is “as measured” without VCM correction for data until the end of 2016.
Concentrations of PM10 at Stansted 3 have exhibited a small increase in comparison to 2018. Since 2004, Stansted 3 and LHR2 have shown a very similar pattern from one year to the next. Over the past five years this has been slightly different, with Heathrow LHR2 having registered a decrease of PM10 annual mean concentration, and Stansted 3 showing a steady increase until 2016. Between 2016 and 2018 concentrations remained similar between the two sites, but a small increase in concentrations at Stansted 3 in 2019 and a small decrease in 2019 at LHR2 mean annual means differ between the two sites. PM10 annual mean concentration at Stansted 3 continue to present similar values since 2008. Concentrations of PM10 at Stansted 4 in its third year of operation reamined similar compared to 2018 (increasing by 1 μg m-3). It may be necessary in future reports as we begin to gather more annual averages at Stansted 4 to compare this site with LHR2. Both sites lie close to the runway and may therefore act as a more accurate comparison, given that Stansted 4 may not be influenced by as many local factors as Stansted 3.
Figure 39 shows annual mean PM2.5 concentrations for 2019 at nearby sites. Stansted 3 measured 10 μg m-3 and Stansted 4 measured 9 μg m-3. LHR2, Leamington Spa and London North Kensington all measured either 9 μg m-3 or 10 μg m-3. As previously explained, PM2.5 is a widely dispersed pollutant, this can therefore offer a possible explanation to the similar measurements seen at between all sites.
The following conclusions have been drawn from the results of air quality monitoring at Stansted Airport during 2019.
The data capture target of least 85 % was achieved for all the measured pollutants at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4.
Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 met the AQS objectives for annual mean and 1 hour mean NO2 concentrations.
All fourteen NO2 diffusion tube sites met the AQS annual mean objective for this pollutant.
Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 met the AQS objectives for daily mean and annual mean PM10 concentration.
Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 met the AQS objectives for annual mean PM2.5 concentrations.
NO2 concentrations were higher during the winter months at both Stansted 3 and Stansted 4. This is a typical pattern for urban sites. PM10 and PM2.5 levels showed a peaks in February, April and August 2019.
Concentrations of NO2 followed a characteristic diurnal pattern, with peaks coinciding with the morning and evening rush hour periods. PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations showed less pronounced morning and evening peaks.
Bivariate plots of pollutant concentrations against meteorological data indicated that sources of NO2 were located close to the monitoring sites and were probably associated with the airport. PM10 analysis seems to indicate the presence of several sources for this pollutant (both local and regional), with peaks occurring under calm conditions, differing from trends in 2018.
PM2.5 analysis shows differing trends in comparison to 2018, with higher concentrations associated with calmer conditions that are possibly associated with local vehicle emissions.
Annual mean concentrations of NO2 at Stansted 3 and Stansted 4 were similar to those measured at similar urban background sites such as Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock.
The annual PM10 mean at Stansted 3 has slightly increased in comparison with last year’s measurements, but present similar values since 2008. The annual PM10 mean at Stansted 4 remained level with last year’s concentrations.
The annual PM2.5 mean at Stansted 3 increased by 1 μg m-3 and remained level at Stansted 4 during 2019.
Ricardo-Energy & Environment operates air quality monitoring stations within a tightly controlled and documented quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) system. Elements covered within this system include; definition of monitoring objectives, equipment selection, site selection, protocols for instrument operation calibration, service and maintenance, integrity of calibration gas standards, data review, scrutiny and validation.
All gas calibration standards used for routine analyser calibration are certified against traceable primary gas calibration standards at the Gas Standards Calibration Laboratory at Ricardo Energy & Environment. The calibration laboratory operates within a specific and documented quality system and has UKAS accreditation for calibration of the gas standards used in this survey.
An important aspect of QA/QC procedures is the regular 6-monthly intercalibration and audit check undertaken at every monitoring site. This audit has two principle functions, firstly to check the instruments and the site infrastructure, and secondly to recalibrate the transfer gas standards routinely used on-site, using standards recently checked in the calibration laboratory. Ricardo Energy & Environment audit calibration procedures are UKAS accredited to ISO 17025. These procedures are documented in Ricardo Energy & Environment’s AURN QA/QC manual, available at: http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/empire/lsoman/lsoman.html
In line with current operational procedures within the Defra Automatic Urban & Rural Monitoring Network, full intercalibration audits take place at the end of winter and summer. At these visits, the essential functional parameters of the monitors, such as noise, linearity and, for the NOx monitor, the efficiency of the NO2 to NO converter are fully tested. In addition, the on-site transfer calibration standards are checked and re-calibrated if necessary. All aspects of the site infrastructure are checked.
All air pollution measurements are reviewed on a daily basis, at Ricardo Energy & Environment, by experienced staff. Data are compared with corresponding results from AURN stations and with expected air pollutant concentrations under the prevailing meteorological conditions. This review process rapidly highlights any unusual or unexpected measurements, which may require further investigation. When such data are identified, attempts are made to reconcile the data against known or possible local air pollution sources or local meteorology, and to confirm the correct operation of all monitors. In addition to checking the data, the results of the daily automatic instrument calibrations are examined to identify any possible instrument faults. Should any faults be identified or suspected, arrangements are made for Ricardo Energy & Environment personnel or equipment service contractors to visit the site, as soon as possible.
At the end of every quarter, the data for that period are reviewed to check for any spurious values and to apply the best daily zero and sensitivity factors, and to account for information which only became available after the initial daily processing. At this time, any data gaps are filled with data from the analyser data logger back-up memory.
Finally, the data are re-examined on an annual basis, when information from the 6-monthly intercalibration audits can be incorporated. After completion of this process, the data are fully validated and finalised, for compilation in the annual report.
Following these 3-stage data checking and review procedures allows the overall accuracy and precision of the data to be calculated. The accuracy and precision figures for the pollutants monitored at Stansted are summarised in table 3.
The air quality index and bandings were updated in January 2012. The table below shows the new bandings, in use during 2019, the period covered by this report.
The following continuous monitoring methods were used at the Stansted air quality monitoring stations:
These methods were selected in order to provide real-time data. The chemiluminescence analyser is the European reference method for ambient NO2 monitoring.
Each analyser provides a continuous output, proportional to the pollutant concentration. This output is recorded and stored every 10 seconds, and averaged to 15 minute averages by the instrument onboard loggers. The on-site web logger sends the data to a web server every hour, Ricardo Energy & Environment contact the server and download data hourly. The data are then converted to concentration units and averaged to hourly mean concentrations.
The chemiluminescence analysers for NOx are equipped with an automatic calibration system, which is triggered daily under the control of the data logger. Fully certificated calibration gas cylinders are also used at each site for manual calibration.
The FIDAS unit employs a white light LED light scatter method that offers additional information on both particle size distribution from 0.18 to 30 microns (PM1, PM2.5, PM4, PM10 and Total Suspended Particles (TSP).
All of the air quality monitoring equipment at both sites are housed in purpose-built enclosures. The native units of the analysers are volumetric (e.g. ppb). Conversion factors from volumetric to mass concentration measurement for gaseous pollutants are provided below:
In this report, the mass concentration of NOx has been calculated as follows:
NOx μg m-3 = (NO ppb + NO2 ppb) x 1.91.
This complies with the requirements of the Air Quality Directive13 and is also the convention generally adopted in air quality modelling.
EC (2015) Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality. [online]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32015L1480 (accessed 2 April 2020). And Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality (Text with EEA relevance). Available from http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2015/1480/oj (Accessed 2 April 2020).↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. Local air quality management - Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. Available from: https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-TG16-April-16-v1.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
EC (2015) Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality. [online]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32015L1480 (accessed 2 April 2020). And Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality (Text with EEA relevance). Available from http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2015/1480/oj (Accessed 2 April 2020).↩︎
Defra (2007). The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (Volume 1). Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. July 2007. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-air-quality-strategy-for-england-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland-volume-1 (accessed 2 April 2020).↩︎
Air Quality Expert Group (2004) Nitrogen dioxide in the United Kingdom [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Available at: https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/library/assets/documents/reports/aqeg/nd-chapter2.pdf [Accessed 2 April 2020].↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. Local air quality management - Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. Available from: https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-TG16-April-16-v1.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (2017) (online). Available at (http://www.naei.org.uk) (accessed 7 April 2020).↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. Local air quality management - Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. Available from: https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-TG16-April-16-v1.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2009). QA/QC procedures for the UK Automatic and Urban Rural Air Quality Monitoring Network (AURN) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Devolved Administrations. Available at: https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat13/0910081142_AURN_QA_QC_Manual_Sep_09_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. Local air quality management - Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. Available from: https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-TG16-April-16-v1.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2018). Part IV of the Environment Act 1995. Local air quality management - Technical Guidance LAQM.TG (16) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in partnership with the Scottish Executive, Welsh Assembly Government and Department of the Environment Northern Ireland. Available from: https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/LAQM-TG16-April-16-v1.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2009). QA/QC procedures for the UK Automatic and Urban Rural Air Quality Monitoring Network (AURN) [online]. London, UK: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Devolved Administrations. Available at: https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat13/0910081142_AURN_QA_QC_Manual_Sep_09_FINAL.pdf [Accessed 7 April 2020].↩︎
EC (2015) Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality. [online]. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32015L1480 (accessed 2 April 2020). And Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1480 of 28 August 2015 amending several annexes to Directives 2004/107/EC and 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down the rules concerning reference methods, data validation and location of sampling points for the assessment of ambient air quality (Text with EEA relevance). Available from http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2015/1480/oj (Accessed 2 April 2020).↩︎
Name | Nick Rand |
Address | Ricardo Energy & Environment, Gemini Building, Harwell, Didcot, OX11 0QR, United Kingdom |
Telephone | 01235 753484 |
Nick.Rand@ricardo.com |